Neurofeedback Therapy Treatment
for Attention Deficit Disorder
and Other Disorders

There is a growing body of research and clinical application data to support the fact that attention deficit disorder with and without hyperactivity (ADD), stems from deficits in brain information processing. In the ADD child's developing brain, cells which normally learn to interface with one another and take on more and more activity, do not take on the proper working matrix. This may happen for a variety of reasons and has no bearing on intelligence. These children have difficulty arousing brain cell stimulation in an important part of the brain... the sensorimotor cortex. Arousal is slower than normal and thus the child has difficulty integrating sensory input from the world with motor reflexes. When given certain medications such as amphetamine, the brain cells increase in activity, working at a faster frequency, to communicate efficiently with one another; the child can now tend to environment properly and focus attention. Unfortunately this stimulation is short lived and may have side effects to which some parents are uncomfortable. Brainwave biofeedback, or neurofeedback, is a specialized field of biofeedback therapy with more than 20 years of research and clinical application. Neurofeedback has been utilized to successfully treat children with certain learning disabilities, ADD, as well as those who exhibit specific developmental disorders in areas such as reading writing, and spelling. More specifically, EEG (electoencephalogram) electrodes are used to measure brainwave activity from the sensorimotor cortex of the brain. The child being measured is given a visual and auditory signal, or feed back, from the computer, and he or she can learn to increase or decrease brainwave activity. With neurofeedback, some children may learn to increase the’stimulation of these sensorimotor neurons, thus facilitating more brain wave activity. Learning to increase amplitude (power) in the 12-32 Hertz (beta, a fast frequency) range while learning to decrease 4-8 Hertz (theta, a slow frequency) are the primary objectives. Once these neurons begin to work properly and network together, they generally will be that way throughout the life of the child and into old age. On Saturday May 16, 1998, National Public Radio's Weekend Edition did a story of Neurofeedback in a Yonkers, New York school district which is using Neurofeedback for its ADD students.  You can hear that broadcast by using Real Audio and retrieving it from http://www.npr.org/ramfiles/980516.wesat.09.ram Neurofeedback Yellow Pages lists worldwide providers of Neurofeedback. Historical Literature Review of EEG Biofeedback (Neurofeedback) In the early 1970s, researchers proposed several theories and protocols for using neurofeedback as an assessment and treatment approach for ADHD children. In 1973, Satterfield proposed a "low-arousal "hypothesis of hyperkinetic children, finding that under-arousal corresponded to decreased beta amplitudes. Lubar & Seifert (1975) published the first article dealing with the reduction in seizure activity by using neurofeedback training. 1976, Lubar & Bahler published a series of case studies showing the effectiveness of SMR training in reducing seizures, replicating Sterman's (1973) findings. These seizure patients also experienced increased attentiveness in school. The findings led to anther case study by Shouse and Lubar (1976) to determine the effectiveness of neurofeedback training using SMR (sensorimotor rhythm) and helping an ADHD child. This blind crossover study provided the first clear evidence that neurofeedback training, utilizing SMR with theta inhibition, was an effective way for working with an ADHD child.  In 1976, Lubar began treating ADHD children using neurofeedback.  He found that children with attention and reading difficulties, but not with hyperactivity problems, produced excessive theta activity and deficit beta production. In 1985, Lubar, Bianchini, Calhoun, & Lambert >provided a strong rationale involving theta suppression. More extensive studies were published following this study, employing more children (e.g., Janzen, Graap, Stephanson, Marshall, & Fitzsimmons, 1995; Linden, Habib, & Radojevic, 1996; Lubar 1977, Lubar, 1991; Lubar & Lubar, 1984; Shouse andLubar, 1978, 1979, Lubar and Lubar, 1984, Lubar, Swartwood; Swartwood, &O'Donnell, 1995; Othmer, Kraiser, & Othmer, 1995; Tansey & Bruner, 1983,Tansey, 1984, 1985, 1990). From 1986 to 1991, topographic brain mapping studies further clarified the difference in EEG's between ADHD and matched controls. In 1990, Mann, Lubar & Zimmerman, Miller, & Muenchen found that theta activity was obtained in many locations (frontal and central) and decreased beta activity was found in many frontal and temporal locations. These findings demonstrated that ADHD (with hyperactivity) formed a neurologicallydistinct group from controls. Furthermore, PET scans found decreased glucose metabolism in areas of the brain involved in motor activity and attention in ADHD (hyperactive) versus normal controls (Zametkin, 1986 & Zametkin et al., 1990). Later, using SPECT (single photon emission computedtomography) Sieg, Gaffney, & Preston (1995) found brain imaging abnormalities in ADHD. Using PET and SPECT these researchers also demonstrated that ADHD children exhibit a maturational delay in the systems affected by. Mann, Lubar, Zimmerman, et al. (1992) found that the comparison between the brain mapping of ADHD and non-ADHD boys revealed increased theta production and decreased beta production in ADHD boys. In addition, the distribution of EEG >frequency for the ADHD boys corresponded to brain activity characteristic to younger children.  Rossiter and LaVaque (1995) compared the effectiveness of neurofeedback to stimulant medication in reducing ADHD symptoms. Their results indicated that neurofeedback is a viable alternative to the use of stimulant medication. Other more recent studies (Linden, Habib, & Radojevic, 1996; Lubar, Swartwood, Swartwood, & O'Donnell, 1995) continue to provide evidence for the effectiveness of neurofeedback training for ADHD children. The above section written by Alexander Minevich, M.A. Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (University of Toronto) Other applications of Neurofeedback (although considered experimental) include Substance Abuse Disorders, Depression, Chronic Fatigue Syndrome, Siezure Disorders, Peak Performance Training and Fibromyalgia. Publications related to Neurofeedback Comprehensive Neorofeedback Bibliography D.Corydon Hammond, Ph.D. Professor, Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation University of Utah School of Medicine Frank H. Duffy, M.D., a Professor and Pediatric Neurologist at Harvard Medical School, recently stated in an editorial in the January 2000 issue of the journal Clinical Electroencephalography that the scholarly literature suggests that neurofeedback should play a major therapeutic role in many difficult areas. In my opinion, if any medication had demonstrated such a wide spectrum of efficacy it would be universally accepted and widely used. (p. v) It is a field to be taken seriously by all. (p. vii) The references below are primarily outcome studies and case reports, with an occasional reference to significant conceptual papers or reviews. References will occasionally appear under more than one problem area when the paper deals with more than one disorder. The following reference provides guidelines for objectively evaluating the efficacy of neurofeedback treatments: La Vaque, T.J., Hammond, D. C., Trudeau, D., Monastra, V., Perry, J., Lehrer, P., Matheson, D., & Sherman, R. (2002). Template for developing guidelines for the evaluation of the clinical efficacy of psychophysiological interventions. Applied Psychophysiology & Biofeedback, 27(4), 273-281. Epilepsy Andrews, D. J., & Schonfeld, W. H. (1992). Predictive factors for controlling seizures using a behavioural approach. Seizure, 1(2), 111-116. Ayers, M. E. (1988). Long-term clinical treatment follow-up of EEG neurofeedback for epilepsy. Epilepsy Support Program Newsletter, 3(2), 8-9. Ayers, M. E. (1995). Long-term follow-up of EEG neurofeedback with absence seizures. Biofeedback & Self-Regulation, 20(3), 309-310. Birbaumer, N., Elbert, T., Rockstroh, B., Daum, I., Wolf, P., & Canavan, A. (1991). Clinical psychological treatment of epileptic seizures: A controlled study. Chapter in A. Ehlers et al. (Eds.), Perspectives and Promises of Clinical Psychology. New York: Plenum Press. Cott, A., Pavloski, R. P., & Black, A. H. (1979). Reducing epileptic seizures through operant conditioning of central nervous system activity: Procedural variables. Science, 203, 73-75. Daum, I., Rockstroh, B., Birbaumer, N.,Elbert, T., Canavan, A., Lutzenberger, W. (1993). Behavioral treatment of slow cortical potentials in intractable epilepsy: Neuropsychological predictors of outcome. Journal of Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 56 94-97. Elbert, T., Rockstroh, B., Canavan, A., Birbaumer, N., Lutzenberger, W., von Bulow, I., & Linden, A. (1990). Self-regulation of slow cortical potentials and its role in epileptogenesis. Chapter in J. Carlson & R. Seifert (Eds.), Biobehavioral Self-Regulation and Health. New York: Plenum Press. Elbertsen, B., & Klove, H. (1976). Clinical application of biofeedback training in epilepsy. Scandinavian Journal of Behavior Therapy, 5, 133-144. Engel, J., Troupin, M. D., Crandall, P. H., Sterman, M. B., & Wasterlain, C. G. (1982). Recent developments in the diagnosis and therapy of epilepsy. Annals of Internal Medicine, 97, 584-598.  Finley, W. W. (1976). Effects of sham-feedback following successful SMR training in an epileptic: A follow-up study. Biofeedback & Self-Regulation, 1, 227-235. Finley, W. W. (1977). Operant conditioning of the EEG in two patients with epilepsy: Methodologic and clinical considerations. Pavlovian Journal of Biological Science, 12(2), 93-111. Finley, W. W., Smith, H. A., & Etherton, M. D. (1975). 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Advances in Medical Psychotherapy, 6, 37-50. Saxby, E., & Peniston, E. G. (1995). Alpha-theta brainwave neurofeedback training: An effective treatment for male and female alcoholics with depressive symptoms. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 51(5), 685-693. Schneider, F., Elbert, T., Heimann, H., Welker, A., Stetter, F., Mattes, R., Birbaumer, N., & Mann, K. (1993). Self-regulation of slow cortical potentials in psychiatric patients: Alcohol dependency. Biofeedback & Self-Regulation, 18, 23-32. Scott, W., & Kaiser, D. (1998). Augmenting chemical dependency treatment with neurofeedback training. Journal of Neurotherapy, 3(1), 66. Trudeau, D. L. (2000). The treatment of addictive disorders by brain wave biofeedback: A review and suggestions for future research. Clinical Electroencephalography, 31(1), 13-22. Watson, C. G., Herder, J., & Passini, F. T. (1978). Alpha biofeedback therapy in alcoholics: An 18-month follow-up. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 34(3), 765-769. Brain Injury, Stroke, Coma, & Spasticity Ayers, M. E. (1981). A report on a study of the utilization of electroencephalography for the treatment of cerebral vascular lesion syndromes. Chapter in L. Taylor, M. E. Ayers, & C. Tom (Eds.), Electromyometric Biofeedback Therapy. Los Angeles: Biofeedback and Advanced Therapy Institute, pp. 244-257. Ayers, M. E. (1987). Electroencephalic neurofeedback and closed head injury of 250 individuals. Head Injury Frontiers. National Head Injury Foundation, 380-392. Ayers, M. E. (1991). A controlled study of EEG neurofeedback training and clinical psychotherapy for right hemispheric closed head injury. Paper presented at the National Head Injury Foundation, Los Angeles, 1991. Ayers, M. E. (1995a). A controlled study of EEG neurofeedback and physical therapy with pediatric stroke, age seven months to age fifteen, occurring prior to birth. Biofeedback & Self-Regulation, 20(3), 318. Ayers, M. E. (1995b). EEG neurofeedback to bring individuals out of level 2 coma. Biofeedback & Self-Regulation, 20(3), 304-305. Ayers, M. E. (1999). Assessing and treating open head trauma, coma, and stroke using real-time digital EEG neurofeedback. Chapter in J. R. Evans & A. Abarbanel (Eds.), Introduction to Quantitative EEG and Neurofeedback. New York: Academic Press, pp. 203-222. Bounias, M., Laibow, R. E., Bonaly, A., & Stubblebine, A. N. (2001). EEG-neurobiofeedback treatment of patients with brain injury: Part 1: Typological classification of clinical syndromes. Journal of Neurotherapy, 5(4), 23-44. Bounias, M., Laibow, R. E., Stubbelbine, A. N.,Sandground, H., & Bonaly, A. (2002). EEG-neurobiofeedback treatment of patients with brain injury Part 4: Duration of treatments as a function of both the initial load of clinical symptoms and the rate of rehabilitation. Journal of Neurotherapy, 6(1), 23-38. Byers, A. P. (1995). Neurofeedback therapy for a mild head injury. Journal of Neurotherapy, 1(1), 22-37. Ham, L. P., & Packard, R. C. (1996). A retrospective, follow-up study of biofeedback-assisted relaxation therapy in patients with posttraumatic headache. Biofeedback & Self-Regulation, 21(2), 93-104. Hoffman, D. A., Stockdale, S., & Van Egren, L. (1996a). Symptom changes in the treatment of mild traumatic brain injury using EEG neurofeedback [Abstract]. Clinical Electroencephalography, 27(3), 164. Hoffman, D. A., Stockdale, S., & Van Egren, L. (1996b). EEG neurofeedback in the treatment of mild traumatic brain injury [Abstract]. Clinical Electroencephalography, 27(2), 6. Keller, I. (2001). Neurofeedback therapy of attention deficits in patients with traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurotherapy, 5, 19-32. Laibow, R E., Stubblebine, A. N., Sandground, H.,& Bounias, M. (2001). EEG neurobiofeedback treatment of patients with brain injury: Part 2: Changes in EEG parameters versus rehabilitation. Journal of Neurotherapy, 5(4), 45-71 Putnam, J. A., (2001). EEG biofeedback on a female stroke patient with depression: A case study. Journal of Neurotherapy, 5(3), 27-38. Rozelle, G. R.,& Budzynski, T. H. (1995). Neurotherapy for stroke rehabilitation: A single case study. Biofeedback & Self-Regulation, 20(3), 211-228. Schoenberger, N. E., Shiflett, S. C., Esty, M. L., Ochs, L., & Matheis, R. J. (2001). Flexyx neurotherapy system in the treatment of traumatic brain injury: An initial evaluation. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 16(3), 260-274. Sterman, M. B., Ayers, M. E., & Goodman, S. J. (1976). Case study: Effects of SMR suppression on EEG and motor patterns in a quadriplegic patient. Biofeedback & Self-Regulation, 1(3), 340-341. Thatcher, R. W. (2000). EEG operant conditioning (biofeedback) and traumatic brain injury. Clinical Electroencephalography, 31(1), 38-44. Thornton, K. (2000). Improvement/rehabilitation of memory functioning with neurotherapy/QEEG biofeedback. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 15(6), 1285-1296. Thornton, K. (2001). Electrophysiology of auditory memory of paragraphs towards a projection/activation theory of the mind. Journal of Neurotherapy, 4(3), 45-72. Tinius, T. P., & Tinius, K. A. (2001). Changes after EEG biofeedback and cognitive retraining in adults with mild traumatic brain injury and attention deficit disorder. Journal of Neurotherapy, 4(2), 27-44. Chronic Fatigue Syndrome, Fibromyalgia, & Autoimmune Dysfunction Brown, V. W. (1995 ). Neurofeedback and Lyme's Disease: A clinical application of the five phase model of CNS functional transformation and integration. Journal of Neurotherapy, 1(2), 60-73. Donaldson, C. C. S., Sella, G. E., & Mueller, H. H. (1998). Fibromyalgia: A retrospective study of 252 consecutive referrals. Canadian Journal of Clinical Medicine, 5 (6), 116-127. Hammond, D. C. (2001). Treatment of chronic fatigue with neurofeedback and self-hypnosis. NeuroRehabilitation, 16, 295-300. James, L. C., & Folen, R. A. (1996). EEG biofeedback as a treatment for chronic fatigue syndrome: A controlled case report. Behavioral Medicine, 22(2), 77-81. Mueller, H. H., Donaldson, C. C. S., Nelson, D. V., & Layman, M. (2001). Treatment of fibromyalgia incorporating EEG-driven stimulation: A clinical outcomes study. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 57(7), 933-952. Packard, R. C., & Ham, L. R. (1995). EEG biofeedback in the treatment of Lyme Disease: A case study. Journal of Neurotherapy, 1(3), 22-30. Tansey, M. A. (1993). Neurofeedback and chronic fatigue syndrome: New findings with respect to diagnosis and treatment. CFIDS Chronicle, 9, 30-32. Pain & Headache Coger, R., & Werbach, M. (1975). Attention, anxiety, and the effects of learned enhancement of EEG alpha in chronic pain: A pilot study in biofeedback. Chapter in B. L. Drue, Jr. (Ed.), Pain Research and Treatment. New York: Academic Press. Gannon, L., & Sternbach, R. A. (1971). Alpha enhancement as a treatment for pain: A case study. Behavior Therapy & Experimental Psychiatry, 2, 209-213. Ham, L. P., & Packard, R. C. (1996). A retrospective, follow-up study of biofeedback-assisted relaxation therapy in patients with posttraumatic headache. Biofeedback & Self-Regulation, 21(2), 93-104. Lehmann, D., Lang, W., & Debruyne, P. (1976). Controlled EEG alpha feedback training in normals and headache patients. Archives of Psychiatry, 221, 331-343. Matthew, A., Mishm, H., & Kumamiah, V. (1987). Alpha feedback in the treatment of tension headache. Journal of Personality & Clinical Studies, 3(1), 17-22. McKenzie, R., Ehrisman, W., Montgomery, P. S., & Barnes, R. H. (1974). The treatment of headache by means of electroencephalographic biofeedback. Headache, 13, 164-172. Pelletier, K. R., & Pepper, E. (1977). Developing a biofeedback model: Alpha EEG feedback as a means for pain control. International Journal of Clinical & Experimental Hypnosis, 25, 361-371. Rosenfeld, J. P., Dowman, R., Heinricher, N., & Silvia, R. (1984). Operantly controlled somatosensory evoked potentials: Specific effects on pain processes. Chapter in B. Rockstroh, T. Elbert, W. Lutzenberger, & N. Birbaumer (Eds.), Self-Regulation of the Brain and Behavior. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, pp. 164-179. Rosenfeld, J. P., Silvia, R., Weitkunat, R., & Dowman, R. (1985). Operant control of human somatosensory evoked potentials alters experimental pain perception. Chapter in H. L. Fields, R. Dubner, & F. Cervero (Eds.), Advances in Pain Research and Therapy, Volume 9: Proceedings of the Fourth World Congress on Pain.. New York: Raven Press, 343-349. Siniatchkin, M., Hierundar, A., Kropp, P., Kuhnert, R., Gerber, W-D., & Stephani, U. (2000). Self-regulation of slow cortical potentials in children with migraine: An exploratory study. Applied Psychophysiology & Biofeedback, 25(1), 13-32. Tansey, M. A. (1991). A neurobiological treatment for migraine: The response of four cases of migraine to EEG biofeedback training. Headache Quarterly: Current Treatment & Research, 90-96. Schizophrenia Gruzelier, J. (2000). Self regulation of electrocortical activity in schizophrenia and schizotypy: A review. Clinical Electroencephalography, 31(1), 23-29. Gruzelier, J., Hardman, E., Wild, J., Zaman, R., Nagy, A., & Hirsch, S. (1999). Learned control of interhemispheric slow potential negativity in schizophrenia. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 34, 341-348. Schneider, F., Rockstroh, B., Heimann, H. et al. (1992). Self-regulation of slow cortical potentials in psychiatric patients: Schizophrenia. Biofeedback & Self-Regulation, 17, 277-292. Obsessive Compulsive Disorder Hammond, D. C. (2003, in press). QEEG-guided neurofeedback in the treatment of obsessive compulsive disorder. Journal of Neurotherapy, 7(), Parkinson's Dystonia Thompson, M., & Thompson, L. (2002). Biofeedback for movement disorders (dystonia with Parkinson's disease): Theory and preliminary results. Journal of Neurotherapy, 6(4), 51-70. Tourette's Syndrome Tansey, M. A. (1986). A simple and a complex tic (Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome): Their response to EEG sensorimotor rhythm biofeedback training. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 4(2), 91-97. Autism Jarusiewicz, B. (2002). Efficacy of neurofeedback for children in the autistic spectrum: A pilot study. Journal of Neurotherapy, 6(4), 39-49. Sichel, A. G., Fehmi, L. G., & Goldstein, D. M. (1995). Positive outcome with neurofeedback treatment of a case of mild autism. Journal of Neurotherapy, 1(1), 60-64. Cognitive Decline with Aging Albert, A. O., Andrasik, F., Moore, J. L., & Dunn, B. R. (1998). Theta/beta training for attention, concentration and memory improvement in the geriatric population. Applied Psychophysiology & Biofeedback, 23(2), 109. Abstract. Budzynski, T. H. (1996). Brain brightening: Can neurofeedback improve cognitive process? Biofeedback, 24(2), 14-17. Asthma Tansey, M. A. (1992). EEG sensorimotor biofeedback training and the treatment of a six-year old asthmatic child. American Journal of Clinical Biofeedback, 5,(2), 145-149. Hypertension Norris, S. L., Lee, C-T., Burshteyn, D., & Cea-Aravena, J. (2001). The effects of performance enhancement training on hypertension, human attention, stress, and brain wave patterns: A case study. Journal of Neurotherapy, 4(3), 29-44. Dissociative Disorders Manchester, C., Allen, T., & Tachiki, K. H. (1998). Treatment of dissociative identity disorder with neurotherapy and group self-exploration. Journal of Neurotherapy, 2(4), 40-53. Mason, L. A., & Brownback, T. S. (2001). Optimal functioning training with EEG biofeedback for clinical populations: A case study. Journal of Neurotherapy, 5(1-2), 33-44. Creativity & Optimal Functioning Boynton, T. (2001). Applied research using alpha/theta training for enhancing creativity and well-being. Journal of Neurotherapy, 5(1-2), 5-18. Egner, T., & Gruzelier, J. H. (2003, in press). Ecological validity of neurofeedback: Modulation of slow wave EEG enhances musical performance. NeuroReport, 14(1), Criminals Quirk, D. A. (1995). Composite biofeedback conditioning and dangerous offenders: III. Journal of Neurotherapy, 1(2), 44-54. Adverse Reactions Hammond, D. C., Stockdale, S., Hoffman, D., Ayers, M. E., & Nash, J. (2001). Adverse reactions and potential iatrogenic effects in neurofeedback training. Journal of Neurotherapy, 4(4), 57-69. Theoretical-Conceptual Articles Abarbanel, A. (1995). Gates, states, rhythms, and resonances: The scientific basis of neurofeedback training. Journal of Neurotherapy, 1(2), 15-38. Lubar, J. F. (1991). Discourse on the development of EEG diagnostics and biofeedback for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorders. Biofeedback & Self-Regulation, 16(3), 201-225. Lubar, J. F. (1997). Neocortical dynamics: Implications for understanding the role of neurofeedback and related techniques for the enhancement of attention. Applied Psychophysiology & Biofeedback, 22(2), 111-126. Sams, M. W., (1995). Mathematically derived frequency correlates in cerebral function: Theoretical and clinical implications for neurofeedback treatment. Journal of Neurotherapy,1(2), 1-14. General Articles on Slow Cortical Potential Neurofeedback Birbaumer, N., Elbert, T., Canavan, A. G. M., & Rockstroh, B. (1990). Slow potentials of the cerebral cortex and behavior. Physiological Reviews, 70, 1-41. Birbaumer, N., Roberts, L. E.,Lutzenberger, W., Rockstroh, B., & Elbert, T. (1992). Area-specific self-regulation of slow cortical potentials on the saggital midline and its effects on behavior. Electroencephalography & Clinical Neurophysiology, 84 353-361. Elbert, T. (1980). Biofeedback of slow cortical potentials. Part I. Journal of Electroencephalography & Clinical Neurophysiology, 48, 293-301. Elbert, T., Lutzenberger, W., Rockstroh, B., & Birbaumer, N. (1983). When regulation of slow brain potentials fails B A contribution to the psychophysiology of perceptual aberration and anhedonia. Advances in Biological Psychiatry, 13, 98-106. Kotchoubey, B., Schleichert, H., Lutzenberger, W., & Birbaumer, N. (1997). A new method for self-regulation of slow cortical potentials in a timed paradigm. Applied Psychophysiology & Biofeedback, 22(2), 77-93. Kropp, P., Siniatchkin, M., & Gerber,W-D. (2002). On the pathophysiology of migraine: Links for empirically based treatment with neurofeedback. Applied Psychophysiology & Biofeedback, 27(3), 203-213. Roberts, L. E., Birbaumer, N., Rockstroh, B., Lutzenberger, W., & Elbert, T. (1989). Self-report during feedback regulation of slow cortical potentials. Psychophysiology, 26(4), 392-403. Rockstroh, B. (1987). Operant control of slow brain potentials. Chapter in J. N. Hengtgen, D. Hellhammer, & G. Huppmann (Eds.), Advanced Methods in Psychobiology. C. H. Hogrefe, pp. 179-190. Rockstroh, B., Birbaumer, N., Elbert, T., & Lutzenberger, W. (1984). Operant control of spontaneous EEG, evoked potentials and slow potentials of the brain. Biofeedback & Self-Regulation, 9, 139-160. Rockstroh, B., Elbert, T., Lutzenberger, W., & Birbaumer, N. (1982). The effects of slow cortical potentials on response speed. Psychophysiology, 19, 211-217. Siniatchkin, M., Kropp, P., & Gerber, W-D. (2000). Neurofeedback The significance of reinforcement and the search for an appropriate strategy for the success of self-regulation. Applied Psychophysiology & Biofeedback, 25(3), 167-175. Contact Steven C. Kassel at s@kassel.us. ©1997-2010 Steven C. Kassel - All Rights Reserved